Sound Rules and Letter Combinations

The Letter C

The letter C can represent different sounds, including /k/ and /sk/. Its most common pronunciation is /sk/, while /k/ is less common.

The Letter H

The letter H is silent when it follows a vowel or occurs within certain letter combinations. Its pronunciation depends on its position in a word.

The Letter Y

The letter Y has several possible pronunciations: /j/, /a/, /i/, /u/, /y/, /ai/, and /ə/. It is relatively uncommon, and its pronunciation is often determined by the individual word rather than by a general rule.

When Y occurs immediately before or after a vowel, it may absorb that vowel's sound and take on the same pronunciation. This behaviour is not necessarily universal, so the pronunciation of individual words may need to be learned separately.

Vowel and Letter Combinations

The following combinations generally represent specific vowel sounds or vowel sequences. The IPA transcriptions are approximate guides to their intended pronunciation.

The combinations au, aa, and ar represent the long vowel /aː/.

The combinations ee and ea represent the long vowel /eː/.

The combination er represents /eːa/, a sequence of vowel sounds.

The combinations ie, ii, kj, and io represent the long vowel /iː/.

The combination ir represents /iːa/.

The combinations oo, ou, and oi represent the long vowel /oː/.

The combination or represents /oːa/.

The combinations uu and uo represent the long vowel /uː/.

The combinations ää and äg can represent /æː/ or /eː/, depending on the intended pronunciation.

The combinations är, ägr, and äghr represent /æːa/.

The combinations öö and öu can represent /øː/ or /oː/.

The combination ör represents /øːa/.

The combinations üü, üo, and öü can represent /yː/ or /uː/.

The combination ür represents /yːa/.

The combination ër represents /yəːa/.

The Letter R at the End of a Combination

When the letter R occurs at the end of a letter combination and follows a vowel, it is pronounced as /r/ rather than being absorbed into the preceding vowel sound. In this position, R retains its consonant sound and is pronounced separately from the vowel.

This rule allows R to function as an independent consonant even when it appears within a sequence of letters that otherwise represents a specific sound.

General Pronunciation Notes

Some letter combinations represent a single vowel sound, while others represent a sequence of vowel sounds. A combination containing multiple letters does not necessarily correspond to multiple spoken sounds.

When a letter or combination has several possible pronunciations and no general rule determines which pronunciation applies, the pronunciation may need to be specified for each individual word.

The IPA symbols are pronunciation guides and are not additional letters in the writing system. The symbol /ː/ indicates vowel length.

The combination öa can represent /øː/ or /oː/.

The combinations ais, ei, and ai represent the diphthong /aɪ/.

The combinations eo and äo represent /eɪ/.

The combinations eu, äu, and uë represent the diphthong /ɔɪ/.

Consonant Combinations

The combinations Sh, Ch, and Sch represent /ʃ/, similar to the sound of sh in English ship.

The combinations Sk and Chh represent /ʃk/, a sequence consisting of /ʃ/ followed by /k/.

The combination Bg represents /bʒ/ or /bʃ/, depending on the intended pronunciation.

The combination Hv represents /kuː/.

The combination Hs represents /heːn/.

The combination Sc represents /sː/, a prolonged or doubled /s/ sound.

The combinations Ck, Kk, and Gk represent /kː/, a prolonged or doubled /k/ sound.

The combination Jh represents /x/, a voiceless velar fricative similar to the sound of ch in Scottish loch.

The combination Zj represents /tʃz/, a sequence of /tʃ/ followed by /z/.

Special Rules at the End of Words

When ble occurs at the end of a word, it is pronounced /bɛl/.

When le occurs at the end of a word, it is pronounced /ɛl/.

These pronunciations apply specifically when the combinations occur at the end of a word.

Special Consonant Rules

When Ln occurs as a combination, it is pronounced /l/.

When Rn occurs as a combination, it is pronounced /r/.

In these combinations, the letters L and R retain their respective consonant identities, while the accompanying N is not pronounced separately.