3.1 Parts of the Noun Phrase

Tailaa nouns are extensively declined. They do not have grammatical gender, not even in personal pronouns: ea is 'he' or 'she' depending on the referent. There are no articles, neither definite nor indefinite. Despite lacking gender, it does have an extensive class system, that marks objects based on the speaker's opinion of the noun. Nouns also take marking for one of fifteen cases and one of four numbers. Nouns also may take a vast variety of productive derivations, and possessive suffixes in lieu of genitive pronouns, and demonstratives that follow the noun. Although most spatial forms are marked via case, Tailaa utilizes postpositions to cover other forms. Finally, despite general head-finality, adjectives and genitive nouns follow the word they modify.

The general order of an NP is: root-(derivation)-(possessive suffix)-class-case-number (adjective) (relative clause) (demonstrative or genitive noun) (postposition)

There are four main suffix allomorphs. The first form occurs after a consonant, the second after a mid vowel, the third form after a single non-mid vowel. Form four suffixes however have one ending shared by all stem types, and replace the last-most vowel in the stem (in the case of type one stems, they form an interfix). Form two suffixes do not trigger gradation or vowel weakening.

3.2 Class

Tailaa nouns, including pronouns, are declined in a system of six grammatical classes, whose uses and meanings are detailed here. Many meanings expressed by case markings in Tailaa correspond to phrases or expressions describing emotion in most languages. Because so much information is coded in Tailaa through its classes, the use of such adjectives is more limited than in English, for instance. Class endings appear following derivation or a possessive suffix but before case endings.

Class I
Class I endings mark nouns that are considered holy, heavenly, or godlike. Class I's characteristic endings are form one and two -ea/oä, form three -iö.

preillea = 'a/the holy flower, blossom'
tianalea = 'a/the holy valley'
halaaiö = 'a/the holy wind'

Class II
Class II endings mark nouns that are considered positive, radiant, beautiful, inspiring, or graceful. Class II's characteristic endings are form one -ie/uo, form two -an/än, form three -nn.

preillan = 'a/the radiant flower'
tianalie = 'a/the beautiful valley'
halann = 'a/the graceful wind'

Class III
Class III endings mark nouns that are considered honorable, respectable, powerful, or admirable. Class III's characteristic endings are form one and two -üs, form three -s.

preillüs = 'a/the respected, royal flower'
tianalüs = 'a/the venerable valley'
halas = 'a/the powerful wind'

Class IV
Class IV is the basic form of the noun, for normal, unmarked, mundane objects. Class IV is unmarked.

preille = 'a/the flower'
tianal = 'a/the valley'
halaa = 'a/the wind'

Class V
Class V endings mark nouns that are considered surprising, confusing, uncanny, mysterious, or ambiguous. Class V's characteristic endings are form one and two -ar/är, form three -r.

preillar = 'a/the strange flower'
tianalar = 'a/the uncanny valley'
halar = 'a/the mysterious wind'

Class VI
Class VI endings mark nouns that are considered dishonorable, shameful, dark, evil, dangerous. Class VI's characteristic endings are form one and two -ete, form three -ne/no.

preillete = 'a/the evil flower'
tianalete = 'a/the fearsome valley'
halaane = 'a/the dangerous wind'

3.3 Number

Tailaa nominals are inflected for one of four grammatical numbers. There is one singular number and three plural numbers. Number endings appear following class marking before case marking. Number endings are unique as they have shared endings across all three forms.

Singular
Singular number is the base form of the noun, being unmarked.

preille = 'a/the flower'
tianal = 'a/the valley'
halaa = 'a/the wind'

Partitive Plural
Partitive plural (or just plural) number marks more than one of a noun, but that isn't all of a set, similar to English suffix -s. Also used for numerals and quantifiers. The plural has a single common ending -ia/iä or -ie/uo if the final sequence is ia/iä.

preillia = '[some of the] flowers'
tianial = '[some of the] valleys'
haliaa = '[some of the] winds'

Total Plural
Total plural number (or just total) is a classification of noun whenever the quantity referred to comprises all of a set, similar to quantifiers every. The total has a single common ending -ea/oä or -ei/ou if the final vowels are -ea/oä.

preillea = '[all] flowers'
tianeal = '[all] valleys'
halea = '[all] winds'

3.3 Case

Tailaa nouns, including pronouns, are declined in a system of fifteen grammatical cases, whose uses and meanings are detailed here. Many meanings expressed by case markings in Tailaa correspond to phrases or expressions with adpositions describing relation and locatives in most languages. Because so much information is coded in Tailaa through its cases, the use of adpositions (postpositions in this case) is more limited than in many. Case endings appear after class endings but before number endings.

As deliminated by Tailaa grammarians, There are four types of cases: grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, vocative), static cases (adessive, inessive, subessive, superessive), directive cases (ablative, lative, perlative, elative), and relational cases (benefactive, comitative, instrumental).

3.3.1 Grammatical Cases

The grammatical cases perform core linguistic functions such as signaling who initiates an action or the object of an action.

Nominative
Nominative case marks nouns that are the subject of an action. It is the base form of the noun, and thus is unmarked

Preillinn preive ui = 'A/the flower bloomed.'
Ileann lialane e = 'A/the birds are singing'

Accusative
Accusative case marks nouns that are the direct object of an action. They either end with form one -i/u, or Form three -se/so.

Caili viasaiü uo = 'He/she finished building a/the house a long time ago.'
Ilva myndoäso dearasan lea = 'May you please protect a/the forests'

Genitive
Genitive case indicates possession, similar to English clitic -'s. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -in/un, form three -n.

Eli tenti silien öcönä o = 'They are eating a/the fox's food'
Völiäs valirüs rüiöuolu ou = 'A/the king's riches have been stolen'

Vocative
Vocative case indicates direct address, similar to English 'O'. The case's characteristic ending is Form one -ir/ur, Form three -sir/sur.

Silienir, ilva tieare vys lea! = 'O fox, may you be happy!'
Cullynotur, airi tydään rys ulä vää = 'O wolf, you must not attempt to kill me.'

3.3.2 Static Cases

The static cases are a type of locative case, which indicate location, specifically in reference to cases that mark a static location.

Adessive
Adessive case indicates general location at, upon, or adjacent to the noun, similar to English preposition 'at'. It also indicates certain time expressions expressing the time at which events occur akin to English 'during, or over'. The case's characteristic ending is form one -as/äs, form two -eis/ous, form three -r.

Niirvier neriisaa e = 'I sleep on a/the bed'
Ilöheas airase myndär hülra e = 'The warriors met us at a/the forest'

Inessive
Inessive case indicates location in the noun, similar to English preposition 'in', within or inside'. If used for time, it can also show how long the action lasted, or how long events took to occur, like 'for, within 10 minutes'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -ain/äun, Form three -sa/sä.

Cailiesa öccän vä cvi? = 'Did you eat in a/the house?'
Valirias ria elliasa näuhäno ui = 'The two Kings were warring for some years.'

Subessive
Subessive case indicates general location below or under the noun, similar to English preposition 'under'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -ien/uon, form three -lie/lio.

Svir vaiailie äiuil su = 'The woman might drown under a/the ocean'
Myvälio recvaa e = 'I sat under a/the tree'

Superessive
Superessive case indicates general location above or over the noun, similar to English preposition 'over, above', rarely for 'on, upon', which usually is covered by the adessive. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -ati/ätu, form three -vai/väu.

Iliann cailieuai ihaa e = 'Birds flew above a/the house'
Aliaaiö myndääuäu tässuinn soä = 'The sun will begin to rise over a/the forest'

3.3.3 Directive Cases

The directive cases are a type of locative case specifically in reference to cases that mark a non-static moving location, direction, goal, and such.

Ablative
Ablative case indicates both movement from the noun, or marking the origin of an action, similar to English preposition 'from, off of'. It also shows the agent when it is used with the passive voice of the verb, as in English 'by', or used for the noun of a comparative phrase like English 'than'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -a/ä, form three -ra/rä.

Svirann cailia tähdän ou = 'A/the sister is traveling from a/the house'
Myndärä dälä e = 'He/she returned from a/the mysterious forest'

Lative
Lative case indicates both movement towards the noun, or non-locative meaning marking the destination or recipient of an action, similar to English preposition 'to, towards'. In cases wherein it functions marking an indirect object, the direct object still takes accusative. The case's characteristic ending is form one -en/on, form two -ein/oun, form three -nia/niä.

Svirann veintaninn tähdän ou = 'A/the sister is traveling to a/the great mountain'
Preilani naliania pattaauil e = 'I have given a/the flower to a/the boy'

Perlative
Perlative case indicates location across or throughout the noun, or movement through the noun, similar to English prepositions 'through, across, along', or a prolative meaning like 'via, by way of'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -ean/oän, form three -nnta/nntä.

Cailiean tällio o = 'He/she walks across, through a/the house'
Nymilinea nymairienna peiuena e = 'The shooting stars were falling across, through a/the sky'

Elative
Elative case indicates movement from the inside or out of the noun, similar to English preposition 'out of, from the inside'. It also has a stative meaning, "outside" in general as a static state. While similar to the ablative, it functions under a slightly separate semantic domain. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -ün, form three -llü.

Occäno ynnotün rö uolliunä o = 'The orc began to stumble out of that cave'
Aia ai syrisea pündülü sasien saltana ui = 'Some people say that a/the soul lives outside of a/the body.'

3.3.4 Relational Cases

The relational cases are a type of case specifically in reference to cases that mark the relation of a noun to another.

Benefactive
Benefactive case indicates the goal of an action, or who's benefit the action is done for, or the reason an action is done similar to English preposition 'for, for the benefit of, intended for'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -iel/uol, form three -va/vä.

Smeaua y vitianaana e = 'I worked hard for this fox'
Ilöseas yie ilciel elia ou = 'Those warriors fought for victory'

Comitative
Comitative case indicates with whom an action an action is done, or in accompany of or alongside whom an action is done, similar to English preposition '[together, in company] with, alongside' or a more ornative meaning like 'equipped with, endowed with'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -yn, form three -ve/vo.

Miavalia loppuus y smeaue sasien ui = 'A/the small cat lives on this hill in company with a/the fox'
Nesien culcynn cäucuon alliaa ui = 'A/the man always hunts with a/the wolf'

Instrumental
Instrumental case indicates by means or via what an action is done, similar to English prepositions 'by means of, or using'. The case's characteristic ending is form one and two -üs form three -ssü.

Tuoroänon suo palasü tähduo o = 'I traveled up to a/the city by means of, upon a/the horse'
Occäno vairi uvüs tyduo rys = 'The orc tried to kill you using a/the bow'

3.5 Noun Derivations

Aside from inflectional endings, Tailaa showcases various diverse derivational systems for the generation of many new terms and words. Derivation can apply recursively, potentially creating long and derivationally complex forms. Noun terms can be derived from other nouns, verbs, or modifiers. Derivational endings appear first in order of suffixes, directly following the root and before a possessive suffix or inflection.

Diminutives
A diminutive is a noun to noun derivation obtained by modifying a root word to convey a slighter degree of its root meaning, either to convey the smallness of the object or quality named, or to convey a sense of intimacy or endearment, and sometimes to belittle something or someone. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one and two -eal/oäl, form three -lia/liä.

neliineal = 'small apple, peaches'; from neliin 'apple'
palalie = 'small horse, foal'; from pala 'horse'

Augmentatives
An augmentative is a noun to noun derivation obtained by modifying a root word to convey a greater intensity, often in size, power, or intensity but also in other attributes. They can convey a sense of respect, but sometimes to a comical or pejorative degree. The derivation's characteristic ending is -(i)ean/oän.

neliinean = 'big apple, pumpkin'
palaiean = 'big horse, stallion'

Collectives
A collective is a noun to noun derivation obtained by modifying a root word referring to a collection of the root word taken as a whole, or a group of said root word. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one and two -emi/omu, form three -mpen/mpon.

neliinemi = 'collection of apples, orchard of apple trees'
palammen = 'collection of horses, herd of horses, legion of cavalry'

Place
Place derivations are a noun or verb to noun derivation that convey the place, home, or origin of something or an action. It can also act as a nominalizer for verbs. The derivation's characteristic ending is -(s)ian/iän.

eintasian = 'place of writing, scriptorium'; from einta 'to write'
preillian = 'place of flowers, meadow'; from preille 'flower'

Partitives
A partitive is a noun to noun derivation referring to a part or section of the whole of the root, or a quantity of said root word. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one and two -ice/uco, form three -caa/cää.

nääccää = 'a wisp of smoke'; from nääcu 'smoke'
mihice = 'a blade of grass'; from mihe 'grass'

Material
Material derivations are a noun to noun derivation that convey the material, texture, or substance of the root. They are separate from adjectival material derivation (e.g., gold > golden), as these describe the material as a derived noun. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one -iin/uun, form two -iti/utu, form three -tti/ttu.

iliti = 'feather, plumage'; from ilie 'bird'
mecvüriin = 'cypress wood'; from meccvür 'cypress'

Time
Time derivations are a noun or verb to noun derivation that convey the time or moment, of the root. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one and two -ynn, form three -hti/htu.

aliahi = 'suntime, noon'; from aliaa 'sun'
ulynn = 'harvest season'; from ulö 'to harvest, reap'

Qualitatives
Qualitative derivations are an adjective to noun derivation that derive the one who carries, holds, or bears the quality of an adjective, most commonly used in epithets and such. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one -ies/uos, Form three -sie/suo.

torrüsuo = 'dark one'; from torrü 'dark, fell, evil'; commonly used as an epithet for many a malevolent deity in Faeic cosmology
uluos = 'deep one'; from ulö 'deep, fathomless, dark'; commonly used as a colloquial hydronym for various bodies of water.

Ownership
Ownership derivations are a noun to noun derivation that derive the owner, holder, or bearer of the root, or the leader or controller of the root. They are separate from adjective to noun qualitative derivation (see above), as that derives adjective to noun, not noun to noun. The derivation's characteristic ending is -(v)eta/otä.

düünotä = 'cowherd, herder of cows'; from düün 'cow, ox, cattle'
cucotä = 'fear-owner, i.e., one who is afraid'; from kukö 'fear'

Agentives
An agentive derivation is a verb to noun derivation that that identifies the entity that does or performs an action. Alternatively, this derivation can also function as a noun to noun derivation to mark someone related to or from the root word. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one and two -uila/uilä, -iyli/iylu.

eintaiyli = 'writer, author, poet'; from einta 'to write'
iluisuila = 'earthling, one from earth; a mortal'; from iluise 'earth, world'

Instruments
An instrument derivation is a verb to noun derivation that that identifies the instrument or tool that does or performs that action. It is seen as a type of agent derivation, but more specific. The derivation's characteristic ending is -(a/ä)vyn.

eintauyn = 'tool for writing, pen, writing utensil'
öccävyn = 'tool for eating, utensil'; from ökkö 'to eat, consume'

Abstracts
Abstract derivations are a verb or adjective to noun derivation that that identifies the abstract idea or quality of an adjective or verb, or the result of a verb. This derivation is zero-marked, they simply just take the grammatical role of noun.

undör = 'loathing, hate'; from undör 'to hate, despise, loathe'
palppa = 'foolishness, silliness'; from palppa 'foolish, silly'

Action
Action derivations are a verb to noun derivation that that identifies the action of a verb. It is separate from the abstract derivation, describing specifically the action as a single noun. The derivation's characteristic ending is form one and two -eti/otu, form three -sar/sär.

eintasar = '[the act of] writing'; from einta 'to write'
lialisar = '[the act of] singing'; from liali 'to sing'

Patientives
A patientive derivation is a verb to noun derivation that that identifies the entity that receives or undergoes an action. It is the opposite of an agentive noun, being the passive form of it. The derivation's characteristic ending is -(t)es/os.

cäucos = 'prey, game, thing that is hunted'; from cäucö 'to hunt'
hudos = 'accessory, attire, thing that is worn, donned'; from hudä 'to wear, don'

3.6 Pronouns and Possessive Suffixes

3.6.1 Pronouns

Pronouns are inflected in the Tailaa language much in the same way that their other nouns are. In Tailaa, all personal pronouns are gender-neutral and thus 'she' and 'he' can't be translated directly. Pronouns have base forms based on person and number:

Though lacking forms based on gender, first person non-singular pronouns have special forms for inclusive and exclusive forms (i.e., the difference between inclusive aia 'we (incl. you)' in contrast to exclusive aila 'we (not incl. you)'. Second person pronouns have special forms for more polite registers as well (e.g., vair is seen as a casual pronoun to refer to one of equal status to you, while ilva is more polite.)

Because Tailaa verbs are inflected for person and number, singular subject pronouns are not required, with pronouns usually omitted except when used for emphasis. However, in the polite second person, or with non-singular pronouns, however, the pronoun is required: ilva nerien 'you sleep', eli nerieie 'they sleep'. In some dialects, all pronouns are required, especially those with weaker agreement, and vice versa in others. Unlike in some languages, there is no animacy distinction.

Pronouns are rarely if ever marked with class. Case however is still marked, and generally uses the same affixes as in normal nouns. Tailaa lacks proper indefinite pronouns, instead realized with constructions with quantifiers or number like aima 'every person, everyone'.

3.6.2 Possessive Suffixes

Tailaa uses possessive suffixes instead of the use of genitive-case pronouns. The number of possessors and their person can be distinguished for the singular and non-singular. Possessive suffixes appear after the case ending at the end of the word.

For example, the word pala 'horse' declined to mark possession:

Thus, one wouldn't say *pala airin to express the phrase 'my horse', instead using the possessive pronoun.

3.7 Demonstratives

In Tailaa, demonstratives are words used to mark a nouns distance in physical space, time, or abstract context in relation to the speaker. They have adverbial, pronominal, and determiner forms.

There are three distinctions in demonstratives, instead of a basic two way distinction: proximal demonstratives, which are used to point out something close to the speaker; distal demonstratives, which are used to point out something far away to the speaker, which evolved from medial demonstratives in Tailaa's ancestor; and obscural demonstratives, a form of the distal that are used to point out something hypothetical, unknown or things out of sight in relation to the speaker, e.g., 'If that storm comes, that will be bad,' 'What is that,' 'That tree was cut down a long time ago,' which evolved from the original distal demonstrative's in Tailaa's ancestor; similar to archaic 'yon'.

Demonstratives agree with the noun in number and vowel harmony. In the noun phrase, they appear after a relative clause but before postpositions. They, specifically the proximal, may function similarly to a definite article, e.g., pala y 'this/the horse'.

For example, smea rö 'that fox'; cuiriä yie 'these laws'; cyluin ryn 'that [hypothetical, not currently present] storm'.

These demonstratives can act as normal nouns in the form of demonstrative pronouns, able to take inflectional endings and such. Like demonstrative determiners, demonstrative pronouns retain the three-way distinction. For example Yso öcönuo 'I am eating this' with the accusative ending, or Ryn cälmä tui nai 'That would be bad' with the obscural.

Demonstrative Adverbs

In Tailaa, there are two main forms of demonstrative adverb; either corresponding to location; e.g., 'here (this place)'; 'there (that place)'; 'yonder (yon place)', or time; e.g., 'now (this time)'; 'then (that time)'. Temporal demonstrative adverbs are much less common.