Class II verbs have a short root vowel and end in a consonant cluster.

They form their basic tenses with tense vowels. These tense vowels are inserted between the root and the agreement ending.

Class II verbs use independent agreement endings. These endings attach after the tense vowel and show the subject of the verb.

What is Class II?

A verb belongs to Class II when its root has:

Feature	Value
root vowel	short
final setting	consonant cluster

Examples:

Root	Vowel	Final cluster	Infinitive	Meaning
gomp	o	mp	ym gomba	to dine; to have a meal
nekt	e	kt	ym nekta	to see; to have sight
fens	e	ns	ym fensa	to smell; to have a smell
lymt	y	mt	ym lymta	to be small
hrins	i	ns	ym hrinsa	to be cold

These roots are Class II because they contain a short vowel and end in a consonant cluster.

Root-final mutation in Class II

Some Class II roots change their final consonant when a vowel follows.

This matters because the infinitive ending -a and the Class II tense vowels -a-, -ø-, and -y- all begin with a vowel.

For example, the dictionary root is gomp, not gomb.

However, before a vowel, root-final -mp may surface as -mb.

Dictionary root	Surface stem before vowel	Example
gomp	gomb-	ym gomba
gomp	gomb-a-	a’gombame
gomp	gomb-ø-	a’gombøme
gomp	gomb-y-	a’gombyme

This mutation belongs to Maþal morphophonology. It does not change the verb class.

For class identification, gomp is still Class II because the dictionary root has a short vowel and ends in the consonant cluster -mp.

Independent agreement endings

A finite Maþal verb must show who or what its subject is.

In Class II, this is done with an independent agreement ending.

The ending shows:

Category	Meaning
person	1st, 2nd, or 3rd person
gender/class	common or neuter
number	singular or plural

The independent agreement ending comes after the tense vowel.

Independent agreement table

Person	Gender / Class	Number	Pronoun	Ending
1st	common	singular	míne	-me
1st	common	plural	vído	-vo
2nd	common	singular	dúle	-de
2nd	common	plural	týro	-to
2nd	neuter	singular	kóri	-ki
2nd	neuter	plural	gainu	-gu
3rd	common	singular	reise	-re
3rd	common	plural	nágo	-no
3rd	neuter	singular	púvi	-pi
3rd	neuter	plural	lábu	-lu

The dummy subject uses the neuter singular agreement ending:

Subject type	Pronoun	Ending
dummy subject	ðása	-pi

The ending marks the subject of the verb.

For example:

Form	Meaning
gomba-me	I dine
gomba-de	you dine
gomba-re	he/she dines
gomba-pi	it dines
gomba-no	they dine

Class II tense vowels

Class II verbs do not form tense by ablaut.

Instead, they insert a tense vowel after the root and before the independent agreement ending.

Tense	Tense vowel
present	-a-
past	-ø-
future	-y-

Examples:

Root	Present stem	Past stem	Future stem
gomp	gomb-a-	gomb-ø-	gomb-y-
nekt	nekt-a-	nekt-ø-	nekt-y-
fens	fens-a-	fens-ø-	fens-y-
lymt	lymt-a-	lymt-ø-	lymt-y-
hrins	hrins-a-	hrins-ø-	hrins-y-

The root vowel stays the same. The tense is shown by the inserted tense vowel.

Finite mood markers

Finite verbs also need a mood marker.

The mood marker stands before the verb.

Mood	Marker	Basic use
indicative	a’	real, stated, factual
subjunctive	u’	wished, possible, required, imagined, dependent

The indicative is used for ordinary statements.

The subjunctive is used for meanings such as possibility, wish, requirement, uncertainty, or dependent verbal meaning.

Examples:

Mood	Form	Meaning
indicative	a’gombame	I dine
subjunctive	u’gombame	that I dine; I may dine; I should dine

The exact English translation of the subjunctive depends on context.

Basic tense formation

Class II finite verbs are built like this:

Structure
mood marker + root/stem + tense vowel + independent agreement ending

Tense	Structure
present	mood + root/stem + -a- + independent ending
past	mood + root/stem + -ø- + independent ending
future	mood + root/stem + -y- + independent ending

Example with gomp “to dine; to have a meal”:

Tense	Parts	Form	Meaning
present	a’ + gomb + -a- + -me	a’gombame	I dine
past	a’ + gomb + -ø- + -me	a’gombøme	I dined
future	a’ + gomb + -y- + -me	a’gombyme	I will dine

The same pattern works with the subjunctive:

Tense	Parts	Form	Approximate meaning
present	u’ + gomb + -a- + -me	u’gombame	that I dine; I may dine
past	u’ + gomb + -ø- + -me	u’gombøme	that I dined; I might have dined
future	u’ + gomb + -y- + -me	u’gombyme	that I will dine; I should dine later

Full paradigm: gomp

The root gomp means “to dine” or “to have a meal.”

Because the root ends in -mp, it surfaces as gomb- before the tense vowels.

Its three tense stems are:

Tense	Stem
present	gomb-a-
past	gomb-ø-
future	gomb-y-

Indicative forms

Subject	Present	Past	Future
I	a’gombame	a’gombøme	a’gombyme
we	a’gombavo	a’gombøvo	a’gombyvo
you	a’gombade	a’gombøde	a’gombyde
you, plural	a’gombato	a’gombøto	a’gombyto
you, neuter singular	a’gombaki	a’gombøki	a’gombyki
you, neuter plural	a’gombagu	a’gombøgu	a’gombygu
he/she	a’gombare	a’gombøre	a’gombyre
they, common	a’gombano	a’gombøno	a’gombyno
it	a’gombapi	a’gombøpi	a’gombypi
they, neuter	a’gombalu	a’gombølu	a’gombylu

Subjunctive forms

Subject	Present	Past	Future
I	u’gombame	u’gombøme	u’gombyme
we	u’gombavo	u’gombøvo	u’gombyvo
you	u’gombade	u’gombøde	u’gombyde
you, plural	u’gombato	u’gombøto	u’gombyto
you, neuter singular	u’gombaki	u’gombøki	u’gombyki
you, neuter plural	u’gombagu	u’gombøgu	u’gombygu
he/she	u’gombare	u’gombøre	u’gombyre
they, common	u’gombano	u’gombøno	u’gombyno
it	u’gombapi	u’gombøpi	u’gombypi
they, neuter	u’gombalu	u’gombølu	u’gombylu

Pronouns and verb endings

Because the independent agreement ending already marks the subject, the independent subject pronoun is not always required.

With pronoun	Without pronoun	Meaning
Míne a’gombame.	a’gombame.	I dine.
Dúle a’gombade.	a’gombade.	You dine.
Reise a’gombare.	a’gombare.	He/she dines.
Púvi a’gombapi.	a’gombapi.	It dines.
Nágo a’gombano.	a’gombano.	They dine.

The pronoun can still be used for clarity, contrast, or emphasis.

Example:

Maþal	Meaning
Míne a’gombame, ika dúle.	I dine, not you.

Example sentences

Maþal	Meaning
Míne a’gombame.	I dine.
Míne a’gombøme.	I dined.
Míne a’gombyme.	I will dine.
Dúle a’nektade ei:púvi.	You see it.
Reise a’nektøre ei:míne.	He/she saw me.
Nágo a’fensyno ei:púvi.	They will smell it.
Púvi a’hrinsapi.	It is cold.

Class II with voice prefixes

Voice prefixes do not change the verb class.

A Class II root stays Class II even when ska-, sma-, or sva- is added.

The voice prefix stands after the mood marker and before the root.

Structure
mood marker + voice prefix + root/stem + tense vowel + independent agreement ending

Example with nekt “see; sight”:

Voice	Present	Meaning
default	a’nektare	he/she sees
agentive	a’ska-nektare	he/she looks deliberately; he/she observes
patientive / eventive	a’sma-nektare	he/she is seen
resultant state	a’sva-nektare	he/she is visible; he/she is in a seen state

The tense pattern stays the same.

Voice	Present	Past	Future
default	a’nektare	a’nektøre	a’nektyre
agentive	a’ska-nektare	a’ska-nektøre	a’ska-nektyre
patientive / eventive	a’sma-nektare	a’sma-nektøre	a’sma-nektyre
resultant state	a’sva-nektare	a’sva-nektøre	a’sva-nektyre

The voice prefix changes the relationship between the subject and the root meaning, but it does not change the Class II tense formation.

Good. And now in the same way Class III

Yes. For Class III, I’ll keep the exact same teaching structure as Class I and II, but adjust the machinery: long vowel + one consonant, a j-based tense pattern, and dependent agreement endings.

Thought for 2m 35s

Verb Class III: Basic Tenses

Class III verbs have a long root vowel and end in one consonant.

They form their basic tenses with a j-tense marker. This means that j is added after the root, followed by a tense vowel.

Class III verbs use a reduced dependent agreement pattern. The agreement consonant comes after the j-tense marker and shows the subject of the verb.

What is Class III?

A verb belongs to Class III when its root has:

Feature	Value
root vowel	long
final setting	one consonant

Examples:

Root	Vowel	Final consonant	Infinitive	Meaning
bún	ú	n	ym búna	to be magical
fjún	ú	n	ym fjúna	to rain
fór	ó	r	ym fóra	to carry
kór	ó	r	ym kóra	to change
gláh	á	h	ym gláha	to be happy
bån	å	n	ym båna	to be dangerous

These roots are Class III because they contain a long vowel and end in one consonant.

Class III agreement endings

A finite Maþal verb must show who or what its subject is.

In Class III, this is done with a reduced dependent agreement ending. The ending comes after the j-tense marker.

The ending shows the subject of the verb.

Class III agreement table

Person	Gender / Class	Number	Pronoun	Ending
1st	common	singular	míne	-m
1st	common	plural	vído	-f
2nd	common	singular	dúle	-t
2nd	common	plural	týro	-t
2nd	neuter	singular	kóri	-k
2nd	neuter	plural	gainu	-k
3rd	common	singular	reise	-r
3rd	common	plural	nágo	-n
3rd	neuter	singular	púvi	-p
3rd	neuter	plural	lábu	-l

The ending marks the subject of the verb.

For example:

Form	Meaning
búnja-m	I am magical
búnja-t	you are magical
búnja-r	he/she is magical
búnja-p	it is magical
búnja-n	they are magical

Because some endings are shared, the independent pronoun is often useful with Class III verbs, especially when the subject is not clear from context.

Class III j-tense markers

Class III verbs do not form tense by ablaut.

Instead, they add j after the root, followed by a tense vowel.

Tense	Marker
present	-ja-
past	-jø-
future	-jy-

Examples:

Root	Present stem	Past stem	Future stem
bún	búnja-	búnjø-	búnjy-
fjún	fjúnja-	fjúnjø-	fjúnjy-
fór	fórja-	fórjø-	fórjy-
kór	kórja-	kórjø-	kórjy-
gláh	gláhja-	gláhjø-	gláhjy-
bån	bånja-	bånjø-	bånjy-

The root vowel stays the same. The tense is shown by the j-tense marker.

Finite mood markers

Finite verbs also need a mood marker.

The mood marker stands before the verb.

Mood	Marker	Basic use
indicative	a’	real, stated, factual
subjunctive	u’	wished, possible, required, imagined, dependent

The indicative is used for ordinary statements.

The subjunctive is used for meanings such as possibility, wish, requirement, uncertainty, or dependent verbal meaning.

Examples:

Mood	Form	Meaning
indicative	a’búnjam	I am magical
subjunctive	u’búnjam	that I am magical; I may be magical; I should be magical

The exact English translation of the subjunctive depends on context.

Basic tense formation

Class III finite verbs are built like this:

Structure
mood marker + root + j-tense marker + agreement ending

Tense	Structure
present	mood + root + -ja- + agreement ending
past	mood + root + -jø- + agreement ending
future	mood + root + -jy- + agreement ending

Example with bún “to be magical”:

Tense	Parts	Form	Meaning
present	a’ + bún + -ja- + -m	a’búnjam	I am magical
past	a’ + bún + -jø- + -m	a’búnjøm	I was magical
future	a’ + bún + -jy- + -m	a’búnjym	I will be magical

The same pattern works with the subjunctive:

Tense	Parts	Form	Approximate meaning
present	u’ + bún + -ja- + -m	u’búnjam	that I am magical; I may be magical
past	u’ + bún + -jø- + -m	u’búnjøm	that I was magical; I might have been magical
future	u’ + bún + -jy- + -m	u’búnjym	that I will be magical; I should be magical later

Full paradigm: bún

The root bún means “to be magical.”

Its three tense stems are:

Tense	Stem
present	búnja-
past	búnjø-
future	búnjy-

Indicative forms

Subject	Present	Past	Future
I	a’búnjam	a’búnjøm	a’búnjym
we	a’búnjaf	a’búnjøf	a’búnjyf
you	a’búnjat	a’búnjøt	a’búnjyt
you, plural	a’búnjat	a’búnjøt	a’búnjyt
you, neuter singular	a’búnjak	a’búnjøk	a’búnjyk
you, neuter plural	a’búnjak	a’búnjøk	a’búnjyk
he/she	a’búnjar	a’búnjør	a’búnjyr
they, common	a’búnjan	a’búnjøn	a’búnjyn
it	a’búnjap	a’búnjøp	a’búnjyp
they, neuter	a’búnjal	a’búnjøl	a’búnjyl

Subjunctive forms

Subject	Present	Past	Future
I	u’búnjam	u’búnjøm	u’búnjym
we	u’búnjaf	u’búnjøf	u’búnjyf
you	u’búnjat	u’búnjøt	u’búnjyt
you, plural	u’búnjat	u’búnjøt	u’búnjyt
you, neuter singular	u’búnjak	u’búnjøk	u’búnjyk
you, neuter plural	u’búnjak	u’búnjøk	u’búnjyk
he/she	u’búnjar	u’búnjør	u’búnjyr
they, common	u’búnjan	u’búnjøn	u’búnjyn
it	u’búnjap	u’búnjøp	u’búnjyp
they, neuter	u’búnjal	u’búnjøl	u’búnjyl

Pronouns and verb endings

Class III endings show the subject, but some forms are shared.

For example, the common singular and common plural second-person forms are identical:

Pronoun	Form	Meaning
Dúle	a’búnjat	you are magical
Týro	a’búnjat	you, plural, are magical

The same happens with the neuter second-person forms:

Pronoun	Form	Meaning
Kóri	a’búnjak	you, neuter singular, are magical
Gainu	a’búnjak	you, neuter plural, are magical

Because of this, the independent subject pronoun is often useful with Class III verbs.

With pronoun	Meaning
Míne a’búnjam.	I am magical.
Dúle a’búnjat.	You are magical.
Týro a’búnjat.	You, plural, are magical.
Reise a’búnjar.	He/she is magical.
Púvi a’búnjap.	It is magical.

When the context is clear, the pronoun can be omitted. When the subject might be unclear, the pronoun should be included.

Example sentences

Maþal	Meaning
Míne a’búnjam.	I am magical.
Míne a’búnjøm.	I was magical.
Míne a’búnjym.	I will be magical.
Reise a’gláhjar.	He/she is happy.
Reise a’gláhjør.	He/she was happy.
Reise a’gláhjyr.	He/she will be happy.
Púvi a’bånjap.	It is dangerous.
Púvi a’bånjyp.	It will be dangerous.

Class III with voice prefixes

Voice prefixes do not change the verb class.

A Class III root stays Class III even when ska-, sma-, or sva- is added.

The voice prefix stands after the mood marker and before the root.

Structure
mood marker + voice prefix + root + j-tense marker + agreement ending

Example with bún “magic; magical”:

Voice	Present	Meaning
default	a’búnjar	he/she is magical
agentive	a’ska-búnjar	he/she does magic; he/she casts magic
patientive / eventive	a’sma-búnjar	he/she is enchanted
resultant state	a’sva-búnjar	he/she is enchanted; he/she remains in a magical state

The tense pattern stays the same.

Voice	Present	Past	Future
default	a’búnjar	a’búnjør	a’búnjyr
agentive	a’ska-búnjar	a’ska-búnjør	a’ska-búnjyr
patientive / eventive	a’sma-búnjar	a’sma-búnjør	a’sma-búnjyr
resultant state	a’sva-búnjar	a’sva-búnjør	a’sva-búnjyr

The voice prefix changes the relationship between the subject and the root meaning, but it does not change the Class III tense formation.